Indian poetics.

This blog is an assignment given by Dr. Dilip Sir Barad. It is about Indian Poetics, specifically the unit taught by Vinod Sir Joshi. For further information, here is the blog link.Teacher's blog

 Indian Poetic Unit by Vinod Joshi Sir

     Vinod Joshi Sir conducted a session on Indian poetics, where he provided insightful knowledge about the subject.

He began his lecture with an interesting topic: "Literature Challenges Nature." He stated that humans are born with two things:

1. Vowel (Swar)

2. Movement (Halanchal)

Just as a person learns language through Phonetic Syllabary Chart , literature also originates from Phonetic Syllabary Chart, as no words exist outside of it.

He also discussed reality and objectivity, explaining them through an example:

When a painter paints, the object (vastu) becomes the painter, but the painting becomes the object.

However, in dance, this is not the case. In dance, both the vastu (object) and the subject (dancer) are the same because the dancer embodies the performance within themselves.

Example from Poetry:

He gave an example from મકરંદ દવે  poem 'જૂનું ઘર ખાલી કરતા.'

      Sir explained that when we move from one house to another in a different city, we take all our belongings with us, but we cannot take the memories associated with the old house. This is because our emotions and connections remain tied to that place.

Discussion on Natyashastra and Ras Mimansa

He also introduced us to Natyashastra, which was composed by Bharat Muni, and Ras Mimansa, also developed by him.

Furthermore, he explained the six major schools (Sampraday) of Indian Poetics:

1. Rasa Sampraday – Bharat Muni

2. Dhvani Sampraday – Anandavardhana

3. Vakrokti Sampraday – Kuntaka

4. Alankar Sampraday – Bhamaha

5. Riti Sampraday – Vamana

6. Auchitya Sampraday – Ksemendra

       7. Ramniyata Sampraday - jagannath

1 ) Rasa Sampraday – Bharat Muni:

           This lecture provided a profound understanding of Indian poetics and its philosophical aspects.Abhignana Shakuntalam and Its Connection with Natyashastra: The Role of Rasa and Sthayi Bhava

       Kalidasa’s Abhignana Shakuntalam is one of the finest examples of classical Sanskrit drama, deeply rooted in Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra. This ancient text outlines the concept of Rasa, the essence of emotions experienced by the audience, which is derived from Sthayi Bhava (permanent emotions). The Natyashastra defines drama as a synthesis of various aesthetic experiences that evoke emotional responses in the spectators.

Bharata Muni’s Nine Sthayi Bhavas and Corresponding Rasas

Bharata Muni introduced nine primary Sthayi Bhavas, each of which forms the basis of a corresponding Rasa:

1. Rati (Love) – Leads to Shringar Rasa (Romantic/Beauty)

2. Shoka (Grief) – Leads to Karuna Rasa (Compassion/Tragedy)

3. Utsaha (Enthusiasm) – Leads to Veera Rasa (Heroic)

4. Krodha (Anger) – Leads to Raudra Rasa (Fury/Terror

5. Hasya (Laughter) – Leads to Hasya Rasa (Humor/Comedy)

6. Bhay (Fear) – Leads to Bhayanaka Rasa (Horror/Dread)

7. Jugupsa (Disgust) – Leads to Bibhatsa Rasa (Repulsion/Ugliness)

8. Vismaya (Wonder) – Leads to Adbhuta Rasa (Marvel/Surprise

9. Shama (Peace) – Leads to Shanta Rasa (Tranquility/Serenity)

         These Rasas form the emotional core of Abhijnana Shakuntalam, enhancing the play’s dramatic impact. The play skillfully blends emotions such as love (Shringar), grief (Karuna), and wonder (Adbhuta) to engage the audience.

Types of Drama According to Natyashastra

Bharata Muni also classified dramas into three primary types:

1. Drishya Nataka (Visual Drama) – Performed with acting, expressions, and stagecraft.

2. Shravya Nataka (Auditory Drama) – Based on dialogues and musical elements.

3. Padya Nataka (Poetic Drama) – Incorporating poetry along with dramatic narration.

The Concept of Rasa in Dramatic and Literary Tradition

        The essence of drama lies in the interplay of Rasa, which is beautifully illustrated in Abhijnana Shakuntalam. Even in war (Yuddha), Rasa is present, as heroism (Veera Rasa) and tragedy (Karuna Rasa) emerge through conflicts and resolutions.

      In contrast, literary theorist Mammat in Kavyashastra discusses how poetry, language, and a poet’s expression are infused with the Navarasas (nine Rasas). He differentiates between two types of creation:

     Brahma’s Creation – The natural world, which consists of six primary tastes (Rasas) such as bitterness, spiciness, sourness, etc.

   Poet’s Creation – The artistic world, which is enriched with the nine Rasas that evoke deeper emotions in literature and drama.

"विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद् रसनिष्पत्तिः"

The Process of Rasa Formation: Vibhava, Anubhava, and Vyabhichari Bhava

According to the Natyashastra, Rasa (aesthetic experience) is produced through the combination of Vibhava (determinants), Anubhava (consequents), and Vyabhichari Bhava (transitory emotions).

1) Vibhava – The Cause of Emotion

   Vibhava refers to the stimulus or determinant that evokes a particular emotion. It is divided into two types:

Aalamban Vibhava – The main subject or character responsible for the emotion.

Uddipan Vibhava – The surrounding factors that enhance the emotion.

     For example, in Abhignana Shakuntalam, the elements such as the bee, creepers, birds, and the natural environment serve as Uddipan Vibhavas (external stimulants), while Shakuntala and Dushyanta act as Aalamban Vibhavas (the primary emotional subjects). Together, these create the foundation for Rasa Nishpatti (the realization of aesthetic sentiment).

2) Anubhava – The Reaction or Expression of Emotion

    Anubhava refers to the physical or verbal expressions that result from an emotion. These include gestures, facial expressions, speech, and body movements.

For example:

"આમ તાકી તાકી જોઈ રહ્યા,

પાપનો માત્ર અમને ઢાળી."

 "બીજમાંથી સીધી પૂર્ણિમા થઈ દે.

  સેજ પાપણ નમેલી ખોલી નાખ."

        These expressions help the audience perceive and experience the emotion of the characters.

3) Sanchari Bhava (Vyabhichari Bhava) – The Transitory Emotions

           Sanchari Bhavas are fleeting emotions that appear and disappear but contribute to the depth of the main emotion. Unlike Sthayi Bhava (permanent emotion), Sanchari Bhavas are momentary and ever-changing.

           Mammat, in Kavyashastra, identifies 33 Sanchari Bhavas that momentarily influence the primary emotion.

A metaphor often used to explain this is:

       Sthayi Bhava (permanent emotion) is like a lake – stable and deep.

          Sanchari Bhavas (transitory emotions) are like waves in the ocean – constantly changing but enhancing the overall experience of Rasa.

The Concept of Rasa and Its Theorists

          When Rati (love) as a Sthayi Bhava (permanent emotion) reaches its peak through Vibhava (determinants), Anubhava (consequents), and Vyabhichari Bhava (transitory emotions), it results in the realization of Shringara Rasa (the aesthetic experience of romance or beauty).

The Natyashastra identifies nine Rasas, each associated with a corresponding Sthayi Bhava:

1. Rati (Love) → Shringara Rasa (Romantic/Beauty)

2. Shoka (Grief) → Karuna Rasa (Compassion/Tragedy)

3. Utsaha (Enthusiasm) → Veera Rasa (Heroic)

4. Krodha (Anger) → Raudra Rasa (Fury/Terror)

5. Hasya (Laughter) → Hasya Rasa (Humor/Comedy)

6. Bhay (Fear) → Bhayanaka Rasa (Horror/Dread)

7. Jugupsa (Disgust) → Bibhatsa Rasa (Repulsion/Ugliness)

8. Vismaya (Wonder) → Adbhuta Rasa (Marvel/Surprise)

9. Shama (Peace) → Shanta Rasa (Tranquility/Serenity)

Different Theorists' Views on Rasa

    Several scholars have interpreted Rasa theory in different ways:

1. Bhatta Lollata (Utpattivada – The Theory of Rasa Production)

         He believed that Rasa is not inherently present but is produced (Utpanna) during the performance of a play or literary work.

        According to him, Rasa is something that is actively created and does not exist beforehand.

      This perspective is known as Utpattivada (the theory of production).

2) Sri Shankuka – The Theory of Inference (Anumitivad)

    Sri Shankuka believed that the audience perceives Rasa through inference (Anumana) rather than direct experience. According to him, when a spectator watches a play, they infer emotions rather than experiencing them firsthand.

    For example, in Abhijnana Shakuntalam, when Shakuntala and Dushyanta express love, the audience infers their affection rather than directly experiencing it.

     However, he also argued that mere inference is incomplete (adhura)—it must lead to pratiti (realization or perception). He categorized four types of Pratiti (Perception):

1. Samyak Pratiti – Correct perception

2. Mithya Pratiti – False perception

3. Sanshaya Pratiti – Doubtful perception

4. Sadrashya Pratiti – Perception based on resemblance

    This viewpoint is known as Anumitivad (Theory of Inference).

3) Bhatta Nayaka – The Theory of Experience (Bhuktivad)

           Bhatta Nayaka proposed that Rasa is not just inferred but truly experienced by the audience, making it an aesthetic enjoyment (Aswadayak). This is called Bhuktivad (Theory of Enjoyment).

          He introduced the concept of Sadharanikaran (Universalization), which allows the audience to detach from personal emotions and experience the emotions of the characters as a universal sentiment.

         For example, in Abhijnana Shakuntalam, the scene of Shakuntala’s farewell (Vidaya Prasang) evokes sadness not just for her but as a universal human emotion, making it relatable to the audience. This universalization leads to Rasa Nishpatti (the realization of aesthetic experience).

4) Abhinava Gupta – The Theory of Expression (Abhivyanjanavad)

          Abhinavagupta refined Rasa theory by introducing Abhivyanjanavad (Theory of Expression). He argued that Rasa is neither just inferred (like Shankuka said) nor merely enjoyed (like Bhatta Nayaka said), but it is expressed and revealed (Abhivyanjana).

          According to him, when an actor performs, the emotions are expressed in such a way that they transcend personal experience and become a part of a higher aesthetic realization.

Dhvani Sampradaya (Theory of Suggestion)

         The Dhvani Sampradaya was pioneered by Anandavardhana, who authored the famous treatise Dhvanyaloka. In this work, he emphasized the supremacy of Dhvani (suggestion) in poetry and stated that Rasa is expressed through Dhvani rather than being explicitly stated.

         According to Anandavardhana, Dhvani is the soul (Atma) of poetry, and he regarded direct meanings as secondary in comparison to the power of suggestion. He highlighted that the beauty of a poem lies not in its explicit meaning but in what it subtly suggests.

         He also compared Dhvani to the beauty of a woman (Stri na Lavanya), implying that just as a woman’s charm lies not in any single feature but in an overall graceful presence, the essence of poetry lies in the unspoken, the suggested, and the implied meanings rather than just the literal words.

                      विभाति लावण्यं इवाङ्गनासु

Dhvani: The Essence of Language and Meaning

        Just as a woman's beauty enhances her radiance, in poetry, Bhava (emotion) leads to Rasa (aesthetic experience), and Bhasha (language) gives rise to Dhvani (suggestion).

          It is impossible to speak without some form of intonation or suggestion (Vyanjana). Language cannot exist independently—it is incomplete without Dhvani.

Mammat’s Three Levels of Meaning in Language

  Mammat, in his theory of meaning, identifies three functions of words:

1. Abhidha (Denotation) – The direct or primary meaning of a word. (e.g., "Lotus" simply means a flower.)

2. Lakshana (Implication) – When the direct meaning does not make sense, we derive an implied meaning. (e.g., "The village on the Ganges" does not mean the village is floating on the river but is located on its bank.)

3. Vyanjana (Suggestion) – Even when the direct meaning is clear, an additional suggested meaning emerges. (e.g., "Lotus-eyed" does not just mean someone’s eyes resemble a lotus but also implies beauty and grace.)

      Thus, Dhvani is the soul of language, just as suggestion and subtlety enhance beauty, making poetry and speech profound and expressive.

 Concept of Dhvani

         Anandavardhana introduced the term "Pratiymanarth" (implied meaning) to describe the essence of Dhvani (suggestion) in poetry. He classified Dhvani into three types:

1. Vastu Dhvani (Conceptual Suggestion) – When the suggested meaning conveys an idea or fact.

2. Alankara Dhvani (Figurative Suggestion) – When the suggestion enhances the beauty of the composition through poetic devices (Alankaras).

3. Rasa Dhvani (Emotional Suggestion) – When the suggested meaning evokes Rasa (aesthetic experience), making the poetry deeply expressive.

Lokik (Ordinary) and Alokik (Extraordinary) Dhvani Dhvani is both Lokik (worldly) and Alokik (transcendental).

Lokik Dhvani is of two types:

1. Vastu Dhvani (Conceptual Suggestion)

2. Alankara Dhvani (Figurative Suggestion)

Alokik Dhvani has one type:

        Rasa Dhvani, which goes beyond ordinary meaning and creates an aesthetic experience.

       Though Anandavardhana does not directly state that Rasa Dhvani is supreme, he subtly implies its importance, recognizing it as the highest form of poetic beauty.

3) Vakrokti Sampradaya – Kuntaka’s Theory of Poetic Beauty

     Kuntaka, in his treatise "Vakrokti-Jīvita," proposed that the essence of poetic beauty lies in "Vakratā" (deviation or artistic twist in expression). According to him, poetry is not just about what is said but how it is said.

      He discusses the concepts of Āścharya (wonder) and Vismaya (astonishment):

       Āścharya (Wonder): Something that initially surprises but is later understood or resolved.

      Vismaya (Astonishment): Something that remains unresolved and unexpected, leaving a lasting impact.

        Kuntaka emphasizes that Vismaya (astonishment) is the foundation of Vakrokti, as it creates the most striking poetic effect.

          In his shloka, Kuntaka highlights how Vakrokti (artful expression) is the key to enhancing the beauty and impact of poetry.

शब्दार्थौ सहितौ वक्रः काव्यव्यापारशालिनी।

बन्धे व्यवस्थितं काव्यं तद्विदाह्लादकारिणी॥

         Kuntaka asserts that poetry is not merely about meaning and words but about their artistic expression. The use of Vakrokti (stylized expression) in both sound (Shabda) and meaning (Artha) makes poetry delightful and aesthetically superior.

             वेदाग्ध्यभङ्गी भाणिति|

       When something is expressed in a Vedāgdhya (distinguished or refined) manner, it means that words are arranged skillfully with profound meaning, giving joy to connoisseurs (Tadvidaḥ – those with refined taste and knowledge).

          A poet creates imaginative imagery, shaping the world as per his vision. In this sense, a poet is like Brahma (the creator), crafting reality according to his taste and perception.

Six Types of Vakrokti (Stylistic Deviation)

Kuntaka classifies Vakrokti (artistic deviation or stylistic embellishment) into six types:

1. Varṇavinyāsa Vakratā – Phonetic deviation (play on sounds, alliteration, unique word formations).

2. Padapūrvardha Vakratā – Deviation in the first half of a word (creative use of prefixes, compounds).

3. Padapara Vakratā – Deviation in the second half of a word (suffixes, altered meanings).

4. Vākya Vakratā – Sentence-level deviation (unique structuring of phrases, rhetorical figures).

5. Prakaraṇa Vakratā – Episode-level deviation (twists in subplots or sequences).

6. Prabandha Vakratā – Overall structural deviation (artistic arrangement of the entire work).

      These elements of Vakrokti enhance the beauty of poetry and literature, making it delightful and impactful.

4) Alankāra Sampradāya – Bhāmaha

         The Alankāra School of literary theory was pioneered by Bhāmaha, who emphasized the importance of figures of speech (Alankāras) in poetry. According to him, poetic beauty lies in the use of Alankāras (rhetorical and ornamental devices), making poetry more effective and aesthetically pleasing.

        Bhāmaha was one of the earliest Sanskrit literary critics, and his work "Kāvyālaṅkāra" explains various figures of speech, similes, and metaphors that enhance the expressive power of poetry.

The Four Pillars of Bhāratīya Mīmāṁsā (Indian Poetics  :

         Indian literary theory (Bhartiya Mīmāṁsā) is built on four major pillars, which define different aspects of poetic and aesthetic expression:

1. Rasa (Aesthetic Emotion) –      

       Developed by Bharatamuni, this theory focuses on how aesthetic pleasure (Rasa) arises from poetry and drama through emotions (Bhāvas).

2. Dhvani (Suggestive Meaning) 

       Propounded by Ānandavardhana,    this theory emphasizes that the real essence of poetry lies in its implied (suggested) meaning rather than explicit words.

3. Vakrokti (Stylized Expression) –

         Introduced by Kuntaka, Vakrokti highlights how poetry derives its beauty from artistic deviation, uniqueness, and creative presentation.

4. Alankāra (Figures of Speech) 

         Established by Bhāmaha and later refined by others, this theory asserts that ornamental expressions (Alankāras) make poetry more effective and beautiful.

           Each of these four schools of thought contributed significantly to the development of Indian literary aesthetics, shaping the way poetry and drama are analyzed and appreciated.

            भारतीया कविरे जयति।

Bhāmaha’s Alankāra Theory :

       Bhāmaha is a key figure in Alankāra Shāstra (the study of poetic ornaments). In Bhalan's Nalakhyan, there is a discussion related to Bhāmaha’s views, where he asserts that Vakrokti (stylistic expression) itself is an Alankāra (figure of speech).

         Later, Viśvanātha in his work Sahitya Darpan elaborated on Guṇa (qualities), Alankāra (ornaments), and Rīti (style) as essential elements of poetry.

Significance of Alankāra in Poetry

    Alankāra is based on language and its artistic usage.

     Alankāra is considered the soul of poetry, as it enhances the beauty and expressiveness of poetic compositions.

           Thus, Bhāmaha’s Alankāra theory played a crucial role in shaping the ornamental aspect of Sanskrit poetics, emphasizing the importance of figures of speech in elevating the poetic experience.

            "शालङ्कृतं काव्यम्।"

        If Alankāra (figure of speech) appears external or artificial, then it is not considered a true Alankāra. In literature, if an Alankāra is too obvious or easily recognizable, it loses its poetic essence and is not regarded as a true ornament.

      A true Alankāra blends seamlessly into the language, becoming an integral part of the expression rather than standing out separately.

                              साधर्म्यम् उपमाभेदे।

      When there is possibility (sambhāvanā), it is called Utprekṣā (hypothetical comparison).When there is similarity (sādṛśya), it is called Upamā (simile).When there is identity (abheda), it is called Rūpaka (metaphor).

5) Riti (Style): Vaman

       Riti refers to the distinct styles that each poet or work may possess. Every poet or literary piece has its own unique style. For example, Dandi's "Dashakumaracharita" showcases a particular style of narration.

          The place (sthal) also determines the style, and the style based on the place is considered more significant, like Vamana's style, which is influenced by the location.

Some examples of specific styles include:

 Godi Style

Panchali Style

Kalidasa’s Vedarthi Style

The style that has a greater impact is referred to as Riti.

6) Ochitya Sampraday - Khemendra

          Ochitya means appropriateness or suitability. Ochitya requires that there be a balance or measure in everything. When there is no balance or measure, there is no effective impact. Ochitya is connected with modernity. Where there is appropriateness (ochitya), there is no modernity, and where there is modernity, there is no appropriateness.

7) Ramaniyata Sampraday – Jagannatha :

        Jagannatha, in his famous work "Rasgangadhar," discusses the concept of Ramaniyata (aesthetic beauty). According to him, Ramaniyata is the essence of poetry and is what makes a literary work truly delightful.

Key Aspects of Ramaniyata Sampraday:

1. Ramaniyata as the Core of Poetry

      Jagannatha believes that poetry should possess aesthetic beauty and charm to be considered great.The essence of poetry lies in its ability to evoke pleasure and emotional resonance.

2. Connection with Rasa Theory

      Just as Rasa (emotion) is central to drama and poetry, Ramaniyata (aesthetic appeal) enhances the beauty of literary expressions.

3. The Role of Language and Expression

       Elegant use of language, refined expressions, and vivid imagery contribute to the Ramaniyata of poetry.Even simple ideas, when presented beautifully, become impactful.

4. Comparison with Other Theories

       Unlike Riti Sampraday (which focuses on style) and Dhvani Sampraday (which emphasizes suggestion), Ramaniyata Sampraday highlights the innate beauty and appeal of words and emotions in poetry.

        रमणीयार्थप्रतिपादकः शब्दः काव्यम्।

Thank you for reading..